ANR-Elker in contracts (2024-02-10)

Relational concept analysis (RCA) is an extension of formal concept analysis dealing with several related formal contexts simultaneously. It can learn description logic theories from data and has been used within various applications. However, RCA returns a single family of concept lattices, though, when the data feature circular dependencies, other solutions may be considered acceptable. The semantics of RCA, provided in an operational way, does not shed light on this issue. This paper aims at defining precisely the semantics of RCA and identifying alternative solutions. We first characterise the acceptable solutions as those families of concept lattices which belong to the space determined by the initial contexts (well-formed), which cannot scale new attributes (saturated), and which refer only to concepts of the family (self-supported). We adopt a functional view on the RCA process by defining the space of well-formed solutions and two functions on that space: one expansive and the other contractive. In this context, the acceptable solutions are the common fixed points of both functions. We show that RCA returns the least element of the set of acceptable solutions. In addition, it is possible to build dually an operation that generates its greatest element. The set of acceptable solutions is a complete sublattice of the interval between these two elements. Its structure, and how the defined functions traverse it, are studied in detail.

A link key is based on a set of property pairs and can be used to identify pairs of individuals representing the same real-world entity in two different RDF datasets. Various algorithms are aimed at discovering link keys which usually output a large number of candidates, making link key selection and validation a challenging task. In this paper, we propose an approach combining Formal Concept Analysis (FCA) for discovering link key candidates and building a link key lattice, and then hierarchical clustering over a given set of candidates for building a representative set of link keys. Such a link key set should minimize the number of candidates to be validated while preserving a maximal number of links between individuals. The paper also provides a series of experiments which are performed over different RDF datasets, showing the effectiveness of the approach and the ability of hierarchical clustering to return a concise and meaningful set of candidates while preserving the ordinal structure of the link key lattice.

In this paper, we present a detailed and complete study on data interlinking and the discovery of identity links between two RDF-Resource Description Framework-datasets over the web of data. Data interlinking is the task of discovering identity links between individuals across datasets. Link keys are constructions based on pairs of properties and classes that can be considered as rules allowing to infer identity links between subjects in two RDF datasets. Here we investigate how FCA-Formal Concept Analysis-and its extensions are well adapted to investigate and to support the discovery of link keys. Indeed plain FCA allows to discover the so-called link key candidates, while a specific pattern structure allows to associate a pair of classes with every candidate. Different link key candidates can generate sets of identity links between individuals that can be considered as equal when they are regarded as partitions of the identity relation and thus involving a kind of redundancy. In this paper, such a redundancy is deeply studied thanks to partition pattern structures. In particular, experiments are proposed where it is shown that redundancy of link key candidates while not significant when based on identity of partitions appears to be much more significant when based on similarity.

Relational concept analysis (RCA) is an extension of formal concept analysis allowing to deal with several related contexts simultaneously. It has been designed for learning description logic theories from data and used within various applications. A puzzling observation about RCA is that it returns a single family of concept lattices although, when the data feature circular dependencies, other solutions may be considered acceptable. The semantics of RCA, provided in an operational way, does not shed light on this issue. In this report, we define these acceptable solutions as those families of concept lattices which belong to the space determined by the initial contexts (well-formed), cannot scale new attributes (saturated), and refer only to concepts of the family (self-supported). We adopt a functional view on the RCA process by defining the space of well-formed solutions and two functions on that space: one expansive and the other contractive. We show that the acceptable solutions are the common fixed points of both functions. This is achieved step-by-step by starting from a minimal version of RCA that considers only one single context defined on a space of contexts and a space of lattices. These spaces are then joined into a single space of context-lattice pairs, which is further extended to a space of indexed families of context-lattice pairs representing the objects manipulated by RCA. We show that RCA returns the least element of the set of acceptable solutions. In addition, it is possible to build dually an operation that generates its greatest element. The set of acceptable solutions is a complete sublattice of the interval between these two elements. Its structure and how the defined functions traverse it are studied in detail.

A link key between two RDF datasets D1 and D2 is a set of pairs of properties allowing to identify pairs of individuals 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 through an identity link such as x1 owl∶sameAs x2. In this paper, relying on and extending previous work, we introduce an original formalization of link key discovery based on the framework of Partition Pattern Structures (pps). Our objective is to study and evaluate the redundancy of link keys based on the fact that owl:sameAs is an equivalence relation. In the pps concept lattice, every concept has an extent representing a link key candidate and an intent representing a partition of instances into sets of equivalent instances. Experiments show three main results. Firstly redundancy of link keys is not so significant in real-world datasets. Nevertheless, the link key discovery approach based on pps returns a reduced number of non redundant link key candidates when compared to a standard approach. Moreover, the pps-based approach is efficient and returns link keys of high quality.

A link key between two RDF datasets D1 and D2 is a set of pairs of properties allowing to identify pairs of individuals, say x1 in D1 and x2 in D2, which can be materialized as a x1 owl:sameAs x2 identity link. There exist several ways to mine such link keys but no one takes into account the fact that owl:sameAs is an equivalence relation, which leads to the discovery of non-redundant link keys. Accordingly, in this paper, we present the link key discovery based on Pattern Structures (PS). PS output a pattern concept lattice where every concept has an extent representing a set of pairs of individuals and an intent representing the related link key candidate. Then, we discuss the equivalence relation induced by a link key and we introduce the notion of non-redundant link key candidate.

Knowledge Graphs (KGs) are unceasingly used by different organisation to represent real- world entities in the form of a graph. They may use an ontological layer for describing the classes and properties of the represented entities. RDF knowledge graphs are knowledge graphs that convey to the RDF model. RDF knowledge graph interlinking is the task of identifying different IRIs belonging to different RDF knowledge graphs and referring to the same real- world entity. This facilitates data integration and interoperability by combining different entity descriptions present in different knowledge graphs.There exist different methods for addressing the task of interlinking RDF knowledge graph. Link keys are among these methods. They are used for interlinking RDF knowledge graphs described using different ontologies. Link keys specify the properties to be compared to decide whether two entities belonging to different classes and present in different knowledge graphs are the same.Link keys can be expressed as logical axioms, and, thus, it is possible to combine them with ontologies, and ontology alignments to perform logical reasoning. In this thesis, we aim to study the problem of reasoning with link keys. To formally investigate this problem, we model RDF knowledge graphs, ontologies, and ontology alignments using the description logic ALC. We choose the description logic ALC as a base language for reasoning. ALC covers many modeling capabilities used for knowledge representation and allows for a more easy extension to more expressive description logics. We extend ALC with link keys and individual equalities, the resulting description logic is called ALC+LK. We show that link key entailment can be reduced to link key consistency checking without the need of introducing the negation of link keys.Then we design an algorithm for deciding the consistency of ALC+LK ontology. We have proved that the algorithm is sound, complete, and always terminates. This algorithm runs in 2EXPTIME. However, there exist EXPTIME algorithms for reasoning in ALC and the completion rules added for handling link keys and equalities require no more computational power than that of ALC.In the light of the above, we design a sound, complete, worst-case optimal algorithm for reasoning in ALC+LK. This algorithm is inspired by the compressed tableau algorithm, which allows obtaining the EXPTIME optimal complexity result. However, this algorithm has a non- directed behaviour which obstruct its implementation.Last but most importantly, we propose a sound, complete, and worst-case optimal tableau algorithm for reasoning in the description logic ALC with individuals and link keys. This al- gorithm, in contrast to the non-directed one, is directed by the application of completion rules. This avoids the generation of useless structures and facilitates its implementation. We implement this algorithm and provide a number of proof-of-concept experiments that demonstrates the importance of reasoning with link keys for the data interlinking task.

The discovery of link keys between two RDF datasets allows the identification of individuals which share common key characteristics. Actually link keys correspond to closed sets of a specific Galois connection and can be discovered thanks to an FCA-based algorithm. In this paper, given a pattern concept lattice where each concept intent is a link key candidate, we aim at identifying the most relevant candidates w.r.t adapted quality measures. To achieve this task, we introduce the "Sandwich" algorithm which is based on a combination of two dual bottom-up and top-down strategies for traversing the pattern concept lattice. The output of the Sandwich algorithm is a poset of the most relevant link key candidates. We provide details about the quality measures applicable to the selection of link keys, the Sandwich algorithm, and as well a discussion on the benefit of our approach.

A link key between two RDF datasets D1 and D2 is a set ofpairs of properties allowing to identify pairs of individuals, say x1 in D1 and x2 in D2, which can be materialized as ax1owl:sameAs x2 identity link. There exist several ways to mine such link keys but no one takes into account the fact that owl:sameAs is an equivalence relation, which leads to the discovery of non-redundant link keys. Accordingly, in this paper, we present the link key discovery based on Pattern Structures (PS). PS output a pattern concept lattice where every concept has an extent representing a set of pairs of individuals and an intent representing the related link key candidate. Then, we discuss the equivalence relation induced by a link key and we introduce the notion of non-redundant link key candidate.

Both keys and their generalisation, link keys, may be used to perform data interlinking, i.e. finding identical resources in different RDF datasets. However, the precise relationship between keys and link keys has not been fully determined yet. A common formal framework encompassing both keys and link keys is necessary to ensure the correctness of data interlinking tools based on them, and to determine their scope and possible overlapping. In this paper, we provide a semantics for keys and link keys within description logics. We determine under which conditions they are legitimate to generate links. We provide conditions under which link keys are logically equivalent to keys. In particular, we show that data interlinking with keys and ontology alignments can be reduced to data interlinking with link keys, but not the other way around.

A link key extraction procedure in case of circular dependencies is presented. It uses relational concept analysis and extends the procedure of Deliverable 1.1. This leads to investigate more closely the semantics of relational concept analysis which is given in terms of fixed points. Extracting all fixed points may offer more link key candidates to consider.

This report address the interaction between quality measures and link key extraction strategies. More generally, it considers the possibility to combine any kind of link specifications and to extract compound link keys which maximise quality.

Relational concept analysis (RCA) extends formal concept analysis (FCA) by taking into account binary relations between formal contexts. It has been designed for inducing description logic TBoxes from ABoxes, but can be used more generally. It is especially useful when there exist circular dependencies between objects. In this case, it extracts a unique stable concept lattice family grounded on the initial formal contexts. However, other stable families may exist whose structure depends on the same relational context. These may be useful in applications that need to extract a richer structure than the minimal grounded one. This issue is first illustrated in a reduced version of RCA, which only retains the relational structure. We then redefine the semantics of RCA on this reduced version in terms of concept lattice families closed by a fixed-point operation induced by this relational structure. We show that these families admit a least and greatest fixed point and that the well-grounded RCA semantics is characterised by the least fixed point. We then study the structure of other fixed points and characterise the interesting lattices as the self-supported fixed points.

In this paper, we are interested in the discovery of link keys among two different RDF datasets based on FCA and pattern structures. A link key identifies individuals which represent the same real world entity. Two main strategies are used to automatically discover link keys, ignoring or not the classes to which the individuals belong to. Indeed, a link key may be relevant for some pair of classes and not relevant for another. Then, discovering link keys for one pair of classes at a time may be computationally expensive if every pair should be considered. To overcome such limitations, we introduce a specific and original pattern structure where link keys can be discovered in one pass while specifying the pair of classes associated with each link key, focusing on the discovery process and allowing more flexibility.

Linked data aims at publishing data expressed in RDF (Resource Description Framework) at the scale of the worldwide web. These datasets interoperate by publishing links which identify individuals across heterogeneous datasets. Such links may be found by using a generalisation of keys in databases, called link keys, which apply across datasets. They specify the pairs of properties to compare for linking individuals belonging to different classes of the datasets. Here, we show how to recast the proposed link key extraction techniques for RDF datasets in the framework of formal concept analysis. We define a formal context, where objects are pairs of resources and attributes are pairs of properties, and show that formal concepts correspond to link key candidates. We extend this characterisation to the full RDF model including non functional properties and interdependent link keys. We show how to use relational concept analysis for dealing with cyclic dependencies across classes and hence link keys. Finally, we discuss an implementation of this framework.

Links constitute the core of Linked Data philosophy. With the high growth of data published in the web, many frameworks have been proposed to deal with the link discovery problem, and particularly the identity links. Finding such kinds of links between different RDF data sets is a critical task. In this position paper, we focus on link key which consists of sets of pairs of properties identifying the same entities across heterogeneous datasets. We also propose to formalize the problem of link key discovery using Pattern Structures (PS), the generalization of Formal Concept Analysis dealing with non binary datasets. After providing the proper definitions of link keys and setting the problem in terms of PS, we show that the intents of the pattern concepts correspond to link keys and their extents to sets of identity links generated by their intents. Finally, we discuss an implementation of this framework and we show the applicability and the scalability of the proposed method.

Data interlinking is an important task for linked data interoperability. One of the possible techniques for finding links is the use of link keys which generalise relational keys to pairs of RDF models. We show how link key candidates may be directly extracted from RDF data sets by encoding the extraction problem in relational concept analysis. This method deals with non functional properties and circular dependent link key expressions. As such, it generalises those presented for non dependent link keys and link keys over the relational model. The proposed method is able to return link key candidates involving several classes at once.

Link keys express conditions under which instances of two classes of different RDF data sets may be considered as equal. As such, they can be used for data interlinking. There exist algorithms to extract link key candidates from RDF data sets and different measures have been defined to evaluate the quality of link key candidates individually. For certain data sets, however, it may be necessary to use more than one link key on a pair of classes to retrieve a more complete set of links. To this end, in this paper, we define disjunction of link keys, propose strategies to extract disjunctions of link key candidates from RDF data, and apply existing quality measures to evaluate them. We also report on experiments with these strategies.

Data interlinking is a critical task for widening and enhancing linked open data. One way to tackle data interlinking is to use link keys, which generalise keys to the case of two RDF datasets described using different ontologies. Link keys specify pairs of properties to compare for finding same-as links between instances of two classes of two different datasets. Hence, they can be used for finding links. Link keys can also be considered as logical axioms just like keys, ontologies and ontology alignments. We introduce the logic ALC+LK extending the description logic ALC with link keys. It may be used to reason and infer entailed link keys that may be more useful for a particular data interlinking task. We show that link key entailment can be reduced to consistency checking without introducing the negation of link keys. For deciding the consistency of an ALC+LK ontology, we introduce a new tableau-based algorithm. Contrary to the classical ones, the completion rules concerning link keys apply to pairs of individuals not directly related. We show that this algorithm is sound, complete and always terminates.

A link key extraction procedure using formal concept analysis is described. It is shown to extract all link key candidates.